Some Problems With Ecofeminism :: Karen Warren Essays

Some Problems With EcofeminismABSTRACT K ben Warren presents and defends the ecofeminist position that people are wrong in dominating nature as a whole or in part (individual animals, species, ecosystems, mountains), for the same reason that subordinating women to the will and purposes of men is wrong. She claims that either feminists must target to two types of control because both are expressions of the same logic of control. Yet, problems arise with her claim of twin dominations. The enlightenment tradition gave rise to influential versions of feminism and provided a framework which explains the wrongness of the domination of women by men as a form of injustice. Yet on this account, the domination of nature cannot be assimilated to the domination of women. Worse, on the enlightenment framework, the claim that the domination of nature is wrong in the same way that the domination of women is wrong makes no sense, since (according to this framework) domination can only be consid ered to be unjust when the object dominated has a will. While ecofeminism rejects the enlightenment view, it cannot simply write off enlightenment feminism as non-feminist. It must show that enlightenment feminism is any inauthentic or conceptually unstable. Karen Warren claims that there is an interconnection between the domination of nature by humans and the domination of women by men. She uses the following demarcation schemas to set out the logic of domination.A1. Humans do, and plants and rocks do not, have the capacity to consciously and radically change the community in which they live.A2. Whatever has the capacity to consciously and radically change the community in which it lives is morally brag to whatever lacks this capacity.A3. Thus, humans are morally superior to plants and rocks.A4. For any X and Y, if X is morally superior to Y, then X is morally justified in subordinating Y.A5. Thus, humans are morally justified in subordinating plants and rocks. (1)She points out that the assumptions A2 and A4 are critical, since without them, all that can be shown is that people are different from plants and rocks.A4 in particular expresses the logic of domination.(269) This key assumption recurs in the reasoning justifying male domination of femalesB1. Women are identified with nature and the realm of the physical men are identified with the human and the realm of the mental.B2. Whatever is identified with nature and realm of the physical is wanting(p) to (below) whatever is identified with the human and the realm of the mental or conversely, the latter is superior to (above) the former.

The Country of Liberia :: Africa Profile Geography Anthropology Essays

The Country of LiberiaThis paper is about a small country on the west coast of Africa called Liberia.It is a country built with the wait on of The American Colonization Society. It wasestablished to place freed lightlessnesss in the days of slavery in the fall in States inthe 1800s. The government was modeled after the United States. Monrovia, thecapital and principal, port is named after a president of the united states,James Monroe. This country has historical moment for african Americans.As Africas oldest republic, established by former black American slaves,Liberia played and important role as a model for African colones pursuanceindependence.HISTORYLiberias tribal peoples migrated to the area between the 12th and 16thcenturies. The Portuguese arrived in 1461 and began a trade in ivory, pepper,and later in slaves. In 1820, the prototypal colonists arrived. Their successfulsettlement was named Monrovia in 1824. More colonists gradually arrived andestablished separate colonie s. In 1847 the colonies united and Liberia becamethe first independent republic in black Africa.The new nation faced many problems. Some of them were tribal wars, lowexports, and land claimed by other countries. Liberia was able to maintain itsindependence only with the help of the United States. Following World War II,the modern port, airport, hospitals, hydroelectric station, and other projects,all financed by the United States, were opened. There has been frequentmilitary conflicts and civil wars. In August 1990, forces from several Africancountries entered Liberia to try and stop the bloody civil wars. The fightingonly became worse and the Prospects of a negotiated settlement were dim.LAND AND RESOURCESLiberias straight blond coast is 350 miles long. It is broken bylagoons and mangrove swamps. It gives way to a low rolling plain about 20 mileswide. Further inland, foothills ranging in height from 600 to deoxyguanosine monophosphate feet highare found. They become mountains in the north and east. The highest point inthe country is Mt. Wutuvi which rises to 4,531 feet. Land area of the countryis 43,000 square miles.Liberias rivers are short and lessen parallel to one another from themountains to the ocean. The largest rivers are the St. Paul, St. John, andCavalla.Liberias tropical climate is hot and humid. The usual temperatureranges from 60 degrees to 87 degrees. Annual rainfall, as much as 177 inches atthe coast, gradually decreases inland to 96 inches. The rainy season occursbetween May and October. A dusty winter wind blows during December.There are 90 polar kind of usable wood in Liberias vast timberresources. Mineral resources include large deposits of iron ore, diamonds, and

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I do always believe in the fact that the to a ampleer extent knowledge you gain, the more professional you become. This make me an obvious choice to pursue graduate studies to meet the pinnacle of professional excellence. Presently I am pursue my final semester of undergraduate study in Computer Science and Engineering I feel it is the right time to take a decision regarding my get the hang that contributes for better molding of my future career in the field.The philosophy which I strongly believe in my life is A person may not put in his complete efforts in doing a fake that he is intended to do but, he will surelyly give his 100% if the work he does is of his interest. In my entire journey from my schooling to undergraduate study, I was always fascinated by the tremendous advancements in technology that made many troublesome tasks convenient to the mankind. The computer technology has ushered in a revolution that is unprecedented in its sweep. Its effect on the everyday lives of ordinary heap has been phenomenal. Right from the super satellite control stations to the grocers humble shop, the efficient office and the busy kitchen in the home this technology is in all pervasive, all consuming. This is what makes it one of the most challenging fields as it not only meets needs but has the power to create new needs, rules and total environments of its own. In this out of bounds of doing masters in my areas of interest, I was happy to go through coursework for Computer Science and am really interested to do my MS in CS at your esteemed university. I prefer a reputed university in US for its gamut of opportunities and good scope for research in my field of interest. Its a great privilege t... ... punctuality for which I am physically and mentally equipped. The main aim in opting for an American standard of education is very high competency Particularly in the field of Computer Science. Being a hard working and committed student, I am certain that I will be able to cope with the rigors of an International curriculum with ease. My determination to succeed and do well will enable me to be among the better students of your college.I sincerely signal you to consider my application for admission into your reputed university. I would be grateful to you if I am accorded the opportunity to pursue my higher studies and given the opportunity, I am sure that I will be able to achieve my goals keeping in touch with the expectations of the university.Looking forward to be a part of your Masters Degree Program.Thanks for your time

Human Cloning Essay -- Ethical Issues, Cloning

Human CloningHuman Cloning comes with two atrocious processes, reproductive re-create (the creating of a new organism) and the therapeutical clone (the creation of a new tissues or other biological products) which affects the ethics of forgiving society. Scientists recognize cloning benefits all men and women, while religious leaders stress the idea of cloning to be an unethical process. Although human cloning serves as an care to the children and parents with conflicts, cloning is completely unacceptable to convey human life as a product.Humans reproductively and therapeutically give the idea of people becoming a product rather than a live being. Siedler emphasizes that reproductive cloning could also represent an enormous step in direction of transforming human procreation into human manufacture (Siedler 91-92). In other words, reproductive cloning will create a being full of dolls that will remove every tra ce of living beings. Though it is hard to believe the world becoming a doll house for each family or community, it has come to a conclusion that the ability of cloning and creating children is questioning every person, what does it mean to be a human? (Yount 114). If it was not bad enough for this world to describe some of the people to be looked upon as nothing but a thing, cloning pushes the idea to a whole new level. By opening the door to many things such as manipulation, Yount states, as she desperately explains the fear in cloning, of wanting to be someone else, it can treat them as objects instead of person, (Yount 114). To even add the intensity of what cloning could do, therapeutic cloning delivers a new definition to fear. According to the ... ...). Parents suffer the mental issue of the child recieving medium-term consequences including premature aging, immune system failures, and sudden unexpected deaths, (Siedler 87-88). therapeutic cloning sounds safe and ethical, but it is no different from those that could be used in attempts to create cloned children so why risk the process? (Cloning 94). redress and Reproductive cloning is used in a beneficial way in different circumstances, but the disadvantages overpowers the beneficial usage with the risk of corrupting the world and more. Reproductive cloning forms human manufacturing as well as a child to a parent who are unable to bear one, and therapeutic cloning give animals a repaired heart muscle, as well as the corruption of religion and social ideas in this world. Cloning comes with consequences and more are to come, so is it value to clone?

The History and Impact of the Printing Press Essay -- Technology

Everyday people read newspapers and books, but where did imprint begin? The movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg made this all possible. Johannes first conceived of this idea of the printing press in the 15th century in order to speed up the slow attend to of producing books (Bantwal). The movable type printing press, the first real technology of its kind, helped to solve problems, but in turn also caused problems. This technology did tempt many areas of life in its lifespan. This includes challenging the church and poisoning people with the increased toxins from mass products of materials. Depending on ones point of view, this institution could be the best or worst thing to happen during the 15th century. Regardless of that, the printing presss influence was widespread and therefore, was a great invention for the machines time. Despite the negative repercussions of Gutenbergs movable printing press, the machine is a positive technology. Johannes Gutenberg created th e printing press in the year 1452. quadruplet other technologies that were more or less common to different parts of the world, made the printing press possible. The first technology was a wine/olive in the screw-press, which areas of Asia and Europe used to obtain oils and create wines. The second invention was block-print technology that Marco Polo originally brought to Europe. A third technology is oil-based ink that was invented in the football team hundreds. Since this ink smears on vellum, printing did not use this ink. Vellum was costly, but durable so books that took awhile to make utilized this material. Finally, the fourth material was paper, which many process make different forms of all over the globe (Bantwal). Gutenberg used these old technologies ... ...to thank. Everyone should know the origins of many of the technologies in the world and many of those do lead direct back to the printing press. Without this invention, the world would have stayed in the dark ages f or generations. People, as a species would not be anywhere close to what we have achieved.Works Cited Bantwal, Natasha. register of the Printing Pres. Buzzle.com Intelligent Life on the Web. Buzzle.com. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Beach, Justin. Pros of the Printing Press. EHow. Demand Media, 08 Apr. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Jensen, Carolyn. Jensen Review. Rev. of The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Lore. San Diego State University. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. Printing Press. ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. Ross, Tiffany. Negative Effects of the Printing Press. EHow. Demand Media, 28 Mar. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012.

The History and Impact of the Printing Press Essay -- Technology

Everyday people read newspapers and books, but where did printing begin? The movable reference printing press by Johannes Gutenberg made this all possible. Johannes first conceived of this idea of the printing press in the 15th century in order to make haste up the slow process of producing books (Bantwal). The movable type printing press, the first real engineering of its kind, helped to solve problems, but in turn also caused problems. This technology did influence many a(prenominal) areas of life in its lifespan. This includes challenging the church and poisoning people with the increased toxins from mass products of materials. Depending on ones point of view, this ruse could be the best or worst thing to happen during the 15th century. Regardless of that, the printing presss influence was widespread and therefore, was a enceinte invention for the machines time. Despite the negative repercussions of Gutenbergs movable printing press, the machine is a positive technology. Joha nnes Gutenberg created the printing press in the course of study 1452. Four other technologies that were more or less common to different parts of the world, made the printing press possible. The first technology was a vino/olive in the screw-press, which areas of Asia and Europe used to obtain oils and create wines. The second invention was block-print technology that Marco Polo originally brought to Europe. A third technology is oil-based ink that was invented in the eleven hundreds. Since this ink smears on vellum, printing did not use this ink. Vellum was costly, but durable so books that took awhile to make utilized this material. Finally, the fourth material was paper, which many process make different forms of all over the globe (Bantwal). Gutenberg used these old technologies ... ...to thank. Everyone should know the origins of many of the technologies in the world and many of those do lend straight back to the printing press. Without this invention, the world would have stayed in the dark ages for generations. People, as a species would not be anywhere close to what we have achieved. kit and caboodle Cited Bantwal, Natasha. History of the Printing Pres. Buzzle.com Intelligent Life on the Web. Buzzle.com. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Beach, Justin. Pros of the Printing Press. EHow. Demand Media, 08 Apr. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Jensen, Carolyn. Jensen Review. Rev. of The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Lore. San Diego affirm University. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. Printing Press. ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. Ross, Tiffany. Negative Effects of the Printing Press. EHow. Demand Media, 28 Mar. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012.

Assess the main achievements of Détente Essay

Dtente can be defined as a period of lessening or relaxation of tension among the two superpowers. It came well-nigh in 1963, with the signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and its main achievements had a noteworthy impact on international relations during this period.One achievement of dtente, SALT (or the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty), signed in 1972, had the purpose of reducing the number of nuclear weapons of some(prenominal) sides. Its significance lies mainly with the Basic Principles Agreement, were both superpowers vowed to do their utmost to avoid military confrontations. This brought about improvements economically since trade was encouraged and indeed, international trade increased significantly. However, this trade was in practice hold to grain supplies from the US.In addition, Nixons visitation to china in 1972 put the USSR on guard, as it was witnessing possible cooperation surrounded by its two adversaries tension between the USSR and China was at a high. However, despite SALTs limitations and an actual increase in tension between the USSR and China, it was a significant achievement for dtente as the two superpowers were willing to cooperate regarding the arms race matter.Another major achievement was the capital of Finland Agreement of 1975, a turnabout from the tense situation that existed between East and West when Stalin was in power. With this agreement, the US recognized the USSRs territorial control of Eastern Europe, and the USSR agreed to respect human rights, such as the freedoms majority rule advocated. It was a huge improvement considering the circumstances of the 1940-50s, where both sides attacked and retaliated through speeches, the formation of organizations (such as NATO and Cominform), and economic measures such as the Marshall Plan and Comecon. Thus the Helsinki Agreement was a high point in international relations.Mutual cooperation in many areas also resulted in easing of tensions. The two countries bestowed tog ether with the explore of heart disease and cancer, and the Soyuz and Apollo ships docked together in space missions. Again, it was a major improvement from the hostile situation of earlier years both sides were willing to work together for a common cause, and was a significant achievement of dtente.Although dtente was a period of relaxing in tensions and increase stability between the two superpowers, many of the agreements established were very limited and not strictly adhered to. In addition, tension was high between the USSR and China. Further events would lead to the breakdown of dtente, but its accomplishments were significant improvements from previous years and thus decidedly noteworthy.

Patriotism in the American Education System Essay

The debate regarding the education of our children has been going on since the institutionalization of education and allow for continue as grand as we are a liberal democracy full of free thinking citizens. People allow for always have an opinion and we will, most likely, neer be fit to please every single person. William Galston and Robert Fullinwider are in full support of teaching a version of history that promotes patriotism and inspires those tuition of it to feel a sense of pride and a duty to, in a sense, carry on the mission of the American heroes that have come in front us and done great things in terms of the progress for our country. Harry Brighouse is quite different than Galston and Fullinwider in that he believes that by keeping the full truth, queasy or non, from those that are being educated that we are doing a great disservice to them. I tend to incline with Galston and Fullinwider with the feeling that our history needs to be taught in an inspiring sort of way.What benefit do we truly gain by teaching young Americans that yes, in position, Martin Luther King, Jr. was a great American whose work during the Civil Rights Movement was essential to where we have progressed to as a society today, but he was also an adulterer and plagiarist? By telltale(a) the holes in an American heros character we are diminishing his greatness and his impact on the deal that have learned of his story days and years after he made such a monumental impact on our country and the progress to end segregation.The gain from sharing that knowledge is extremely minimal compared to the damage it does to the credibility of his work that he is truly known and greatly respected for. It is much simpler and much more productive to producing firm citizens if we leave certain, inconsequential parts of the story out. This doesnt mean we lie to anyone, we simply tell the part of the story that generates the desired feelings of subject pride and/or patriotism while in stilling the inevitable knowledge to generations that will move forward to produce similar greatness, or as Fullinwider puts it, historical knowledge contributes to citizenship, and thusly nation-building, (Fullinwider, 1996, pg. 204).Harry Brighouse is of the belief that by shielding any tiny bit of the truth from children as we educate them we are doing a lot more harm than good to them. He argues that children should be exposed to the entire truth regardless of the negative light that may be revealed of anyone involved, American hero or otherwise. Brighouse feels that it is the right of an educational system to expose kids to as much factual information as we can and allow them the freedom to choose what they will believe and what will inspire them both in the present and the future. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. sides with Brighouse and establishes that furrow that writing or teaching history as a means of defining national identity turns history into a weapon, (Schlesinger, 1999 , pg 37). two Schlesinger and Brighouse would argue that history should never change, all the facts should be laid out on the table and nix should be held back, because, if we crap the decision to hold something out of curriculum, who makes that decision and what qualifies as unnecessary? Schlesinger and Brighouses phone line centers on the main idea that educators do non have the right to manipulate history. Schlesinger goes in depth in his writings in The Disuniting of America that certain false views of history are wrong, but redden dangerous for citizens to be exposed to. He claims that, the proper account of our past strengthens the common purpose that holds us together. It reinvigorates the American Creed, (Schlesinger, 1990, pg. 37).Galston and Fullinwider are on the other side of the argument, they believe that educators should teach history in such a way that instills national pride and creates informed, proud American citizens. Fullinwider calls this type of history patriotic history. He believes that this sort of education will inform, of course, but more importantly will establish a system of values that, in the end, will create citizens. Both Galston and Fullinwider argue for a type of history that they refer to as a usable past. A usable past is one that informs citizens and institutes a willingness to make the sacrifices necessary to support and improve the nations political institutions, (Fullinwider, 1996, pg. 207). Truth of the matter, like in the case of the exclusion of facts regarding Martin Luther King, Jr. unfavorable personal lifestyle during the heavy of his involvement in the Civil Rights Movement, is that not all men who do great things are great men of high character.In some cases, inclusion of all the facts does nothing to diminish any greatness and may, in fact, create a greater sense of the ability for one single person to make a great impact regardless of any shortcomings they may have. On the other, if all the details a re not necessary then why intromit them? Why would we make a hero less of a hero by revealing the unnecessary truth? Facts that bind the entire story together should never be omitted. Galston and Fullinwider believe in, and support, an education that promotes national pride. They are all for a patriot history, because we will then instill the idea and sense of function in young Americans that they should carry the torch, so to speak, and continue to build upon the greatness that is America. Fullinwider concludes that the purpose of teaching a patriotic history is to help students develop a keen sense of ethics and citizenship, so that they might care deeply about the quality of life in their community, their nation, and their world, (Fullinwider, 1996, pg. 222).In Patriotic History, Fullinwider argues against Schlesingers taper for the nothing left out type of historical education, by saying the Schlesinger is intending to make history seem very precise and when that becomes the case were loss it up to what truth the educator believes in. Fullinwider goes even further in his argument against Schlesingers writing by claiming that Schlesingers book The Disuniting of America is, in fact itself, purely history told for effect without the intention to simply inform, but rather to draw out and strengthen commitments to national unity (pg. 210). The presentation of history is storytelling and storytelling must(prenominal) come from a particular point of view. Historical education may never be 100% accurate because well never truly know the intentions or finer details from all the angles or perspectives of each event. Somebody has to tell the story to present the history, but it will always come from a curb point of view.It is the duty of the educational systems to determine which point of view the story should come from and this is where I harmonise more with Galston and Fullinwider before we, as an educational system, define what we want taught to our citize ns, we need to decide what we hope listeners or those being educated should get out of the experience. Like Galston and Fullinwider, I think it is in the best use up for our country to try and promote patriotism and pride in being an American. The responsibility of shaping and molding upstanding, progressive citizens falls on the shoulders of our educational systems as well as public institutions and they both must come together to determine what is best for the development of our nation. Within that responsibility lays the decision of what aspects of history we will teach our young students.For me, it comes down to favoring civic education over philosophic education. Id rather the goal of our educational programs be to pass along the knowledge necessary to create individuals that feel a loyalty and responsibility to do something great for their country, whether that be along the lines of being a great American hero like Martin Luther King, Jr. or simply by being a consistent, educ ated, responsible American citizen capable of supporting and functioning within our democracy. I disagree with the argument that by teaching a certain version of history we are limiting a childs autonomy. We are not enforcing any beliefs or completely eliminating any bit of history, we are simply fostering an environment that will produce good and loyal citizens. Agreeing to tell a story (teaching history) a certain way does not mean we are telling people how to think quite the opposite.We are inspiring greatness and allowing people to be free thinking and promoting the idea that anyone, common, uncommon and anywhere in between, can make a great impact that will last forever. The argument that exists between the Galston/Fullinwider side of teaching a patriotic history and the Brighouse/Schlesinger side of giving the whole truth regardless of degrading details just muddies the argument that we should really be having What do we hope to get out of those that are being taught this hist ory? When we look at that question we will be able to work together to find a solution. We could go on forever, just like this argument already has, debating what story to tell and from which perspective, but that, ultimately, gets us nowhere. Lets agree to teach from a perspective of nation building that Galston and Fullinwider promote and continue to develop as a country.BibliographyFullinwider, R. (1996). Patriotic History. Cambridge University Press, pages 203-225. Galston, W. (1991). Civic Education in the freehanded State. Cambridge University Press, pages 470-478. Schlesinger, Jr., A. (1999). The Disuniting of America Reflections on a Multicultural Society. W. W. Norton & Company, pages 12-37.

What Are the Effects of Poor Communication in a Project

Faculty of line of descent Department of cargon and Project oversight Baccalaureus Technologiae Project Management Project Research IV Lecturer L. Jowah RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PROPOSAL TABLE OF CONTENTS Hypothesis The matrix worry social organization hinders the assure manager when executing a confinement. 1 Research headland 1 Topic 1 KEY WORDS 1 CONCEPT DEFINITIONS 1 2 CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND AND line of work ORIENTATION 2 1. 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1. 2 BACKGROUND TO STUDY 3 1. 3 PROBLEM FORMULATION 4 1. 4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 5 1. 4. 1 Primary objective 5 1. 4. 2 metaphysical objectives of the study 5 1. 4. Empirical objectives 5 1. 5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 6 1. 5. 1 Literature check over 6 1. 5. 2 Target universe 6 1. 5. 3 precedent selection and method of sampling 6 1. 5. 4 The method of data sight 7 1. 5. 5 Statistical Analysis 7 1. 6 CHAPTER compartmentalisation 7 1. 6. 1 Chapter two Literature review 7 1. 6. 2 Chapter three Research practice and Methodology 7 1. 6. 3 Chapter four Results and Findings 7 1. 6. 4 Chapter five Conclusions and Recommendations 8 1. 7 SYNOPSIS 8 REFERENCES 9 Questionnaire 11 Part A Project Planning.. 1 Part B Organisational Support. 12 Part C Organisational Characteristics .. 13 Hypothesis The matrix oversight structure hinders the vomit up manager when executing a jut out. Research Question How does the matrix structure affect the send managers efficaciousness? Topic Organisational structures influence the effectiveness of a escort manager. KEY WORDS constitutional structures focus visualize management CONCEPT DEFINITIONS Project According to the PMBOK A temporary endeavor ndertaken to create a unique harvest-home or service. Temporary means that every vomit has a definite beginning and a definite end. Unique means that the product or service is different in some distinguishing way from either similar products or services A work out management guide, and an internationally recognized sta ndard, that provides the fundamentals of project management as they apply to a full(a) range of projects. PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge Management Organisational structures 1. Effective use and coordination of resources much(prenominal) as capital, plant materials and labour to achieve defined objectives with level best cogency. . People responsible for directing and running and organisation. 1. Arrangement of the work of the organisation into units and management positions between which there are defined relationships involving the exercise of authority and the talk of instructions and in pretendation. 2. Determination and specification of appropriate operational and functional roles and the resulting relationships. The aim of organisational structuring is to provide for an effective organisation structure which enables the best use to be make of the minds, judgements and energies of the members of the organisation. CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM ORIENTATION 1. 1 INTRODUCTION Project management is the discipline of planning, organising, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project name and addresss and objectives (Cleland & Gareis, 20061-4). According to Burke (200728-30), elanrn day project management started in the early 1900s with Henry Gantts development of the barchart, and project management techniques which were specifically developed for the military and aerospace projects of the 1950s and 1960s in America and Britain.Today, companies are encouraged to change their management systems to adapt to the project management environment. A project is defined as a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service (PMBOK, 20044). According to Sandhu & Gunasekaran (2004673-690), a project is a set of inter-related tasks that are undertaken by an organisation to meet defined objectives, that has an agreed start and finish time, is constrained by cost, and that has specified work requirements and resources. Projects are ordinarily led by a project manager who is a professional in the field of project management.Project managers brush off have the responsibility of the planning, execution, and termination of any project. However the project manager has to interface with the line management, according to Kerzner (20067). Projects are performed by people and managed through people, so it is essential to develop an organisation structure which reflects the needs of the project (Burke, 2007304). Organisations use project management to bring key people together to achieve specific goals (Palmer, 2002101-105). According to Gido & Clements (2003336-339), Conflict mass arise from poor or organisational issues drive out cause conflict in a project. mbiguous project communication, lack of information sharing, or failure to make incidentally ends. Problems ca apply by conflict include confusion waste of time, money and opportunity diminished productivity de-mot ivation of individuals and teams internal conflicts and power struggles and ultimately project failure (Box & Platts, 2005370-387). 2 Due to the numerous working interfaces, complicated networks, and diversified team members of a large project, coordination efficiency among members of the team is vital to the projects success (Cheng, Su & You, 200370-79).virtuoso of the simplest, yet most effective things upper management can do is to set out the companys policy for project management consequently establishing the vision for how the company wants to best utilise project management concepts and gives a clear downwards communication (Eve, 200785-90). Successful executives and managers must maintain an appropriate rest period between strategic and operational concerns, as they conduct the affairs of their organisation in a project management environment (Czuchry & Yasin, 200339-46).The first and most prefatory lesson learnt regarding project management implementation, is that top ma nagement must demonstrate its unequivocal and visible support for a transition to the project management way of goal achievement (Brown & Botha, 20051-7). When senior management place the responsibility for project success with the project manager, without providing adequate authority and at times, implemented changes that further undermine the project managers authority it leads to project failure (Kennedy & Marx, 2009368-373).The starting point for ensuring that matrix structures work effectively is to ensure that there is a genuine need for them (Rees & Porter, 2004189-193). Matrix structures should not be introduced simply on the basis that they are fashionable. It is also important to note that work teams do not exist in a vacuum, but are part of a larger organisational system with distinct cultural and structural characteristics (Tata, 2000187-193). 1. 2 BACKGROUND TO STUDY An organisational structure is a mainly hierarchical concept of subordination of entities that collabora te and contribute to serve one common aim.Organisational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and individual. 3 A hierarchical organisation is an organisational structure where every entity in the organisation, except one, is sub-ordinate to a single other entity. This arrangement is a form of a hierarchy. In an organisation, the hierarchy usually consists of a singular/group of power at the top with subsequent levels of power beneath them.This is the dominant mode of organisation among large organisations most corporations, governments, and organized religions are hierarchical organisations with different levels of management, power or authority. Organisations have recognised that performing organisational projects has increased both organisational efficiency and effectiveness, thus organisational projects are becoming more of a norm than an exception these days. Each type of organisation has advantages and disadvantages pertaining to project implementation. The organisation should establish firm, standardized project management systems.The matrix structure leads to institutionalised conflict which, if properly channelled, should lead to a number of advantages, such as efficiency and flexibility in used of resources, technical excellence of solutions, motivation and development of employees and the freeing of top management from routine finale making (Rowlinson, 2001669-673). According to Brown (20081-9), a seven footprint organisational process needs to be formally instituted in an organisation through a well planned strategy to ensure that appropriate project management processes and tools. . 3 PROBLEM FORMULATION In recent years, managers of for-profit private organisations have been under considerable market pressures to re-orient the strategies, operations and business models of their organisations. In a solvent to these pres sures, the organisational structures of these organisations have been steadily re-engineered from mechanistic, rigid and closed system-oriented to a more organic, flexible and open system-oriented (Gomes, Yasin & Lisboa, 2008 573-585). 4Most managers focus on how the project methodology can adapt to its organisational context, however, in doing so, they sacrifice the flexibility and dynamism of the project approach for the bureaucratic, control-based view of functional organisations (Thiry, 200622) The questions to be addressed in this study are as follows How does the organisational structure affect the project managers effectiveness? To what degree is the effectiveness of the organisational structure sabotaged by the human factor? Which organisational structures are best suited for project management? 1. 4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY . 4. 1 Primary objective The resolve of this study is to verify whether organisational structures influence the effectiveness of a project manager. 1 . 4. 2 Theoretical objectives of the study The interest theoretical objectives were established in order to support the primary objective. Conducting management. Conducting a literature study on factors of influence in project management. Reviewing organisational structure models commonly employed by companies in the project management environment. Contrasting the literature studied with observations in the industry in practice. 1. 4. Empirical objectives The sideline empirical objectives were formulated in support of the primary and theoretical objectives. Identifying key elements of influence on project management success. a literature study on organisational structures in project 5 Identifying organisational structures employed by companies to ensure support project management. 1. 5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1. 5. 1 Literature review Published material in the form of books, journals, magazines, news root word articles, government publications and the Internet formed part of establishing a well-informed theoretical background. . 5. 2 Target population The population was restricted to companies in the Western Cape Province, for economic reasons as most companies are within easy reach. The population comprised project management practitioners. For the purpose of this study, project management practitioners are persons practising project management, who are given the responsibility and accountability for implementing projects in an organisation. In industry, the title varies from company to company. The commonly used titles are Project Supervisor and Project Manager.The companies to be included in the study must be practising project The companies must have a formal project management for more than five years. management structure in place. It is anticipated that many companies may not be keen to share information on this subject. Therefore, to increase the probability of reaching the involve sample size, organisations in the entire province were chosen. 1. 5. 3 Sample selection and method of sampling A combination of convenience and judgement sampling was used, in light of the geographical dispersion of the organisations.Care was taken to include a broad variety of project management practitioners. The organisations were grouped according to industries. In the absence of previous research, a minimum sample size of one hundred project management practitioners volition be chosen for the study. The sample size has been determined on the basis of the cost of the exercise and accessibility to the various companies. 6 1. 5. 4 The method of data collection The survey method will be used. A personal interview using a structured questionnaire will be used to obtain the required information.This method was chosen as it is simple and allows for clarity of questions. 1. 5. 5 Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics will be used for the initial analysis. The MoonStats package will be used for data analysis. Cross-tabulation and co rrelation will be used to establish simple relationships between the organisational structure and its effects on project management in the business. 1. 6 CHAPTER CLASSIFICATION 1. 6. 1 Chapter two Literature review An overview is provided of strategies, strategic business levels ad their relationship to each other.This chapter concentrates on organisational structures, competencies and the kinetics of project management. It also explores the need for strategic organisational decisions to further support project management objectives. structures are also highlighted. Different organisational 1. 6. 2 Chapter three Research Design and Methodology The emphasis of this chapter is on the design of the research, the measuring instruments and population target. employed are outlined. The data analysis procedure and the statistical techniques 1. 6. 3 Chapter four Results and Findings In this chapter data is analysed, interpreted and evaluated. 1. 6. 4 Chapter five Conclusions and Recommenda tions The recommendations emanating from the study are suggested. limitations of the research are highlighted. The benefits and 1. 7 SYNOPSIS This paper is primarily addressed at the decision makers about project management in an organisation. In the arenas of business and management, the principles of project management are relatively simple and much of it actually common sense. However, this paper aims to confirm that the implementation and acceptance thereof, in a functionallyonly structured organisation, is quite a complex process. The papers prime purpose is herefore to highlight, that after the decision to implement project management is made, a number of not so obvious implications for the organisation, as well as structural, organisational culture and systems changes, have to be thoroughly managed to ensure success. In this chapter the background and scope of research are described. The Research objectives are utilized in an effort to address the research problem. In the ab utting chapter the literature used as background for this study, will be discussed, while the different levels of project management organisational structures and how they are interrelated will be outlined. REFERENCES Cleland, D. , Gareis, R. 2006. world(prenominal) project management handbook Planning, McGraw-Hill Organizing and Controlling International Projects, Second Edition. Professional. Project Management Institute. 2004. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge third edition. Pennsylvania PMI Publications. Burke, R. 2007. Project management Techniques college edition. southeastward Africa Burke create. Gido, J. and Clements, J. P. 2003. Successful Project Management Second Edition. USA. South-Western. Kerzner, H. 2006. Project Management Ninth Edition, A Systems Approach to Planning, computer programing and Controlling.Hoboken, New Jersey. John Wiley & Sons. Sandhu, M. A. and Gunasekaran, A. 2004. Business process development in projectbased industry. Busi ness Process Management Journal. Vol. 10 no 6673-690. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Box, S. and Platts, K. 2005. Business process management establishing and maintaining project alignment. Business Process Management Journal. Vol. 11 No. 4370-387. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Palmer, M. 2002. How an effective project culture can help to achieve business success establishing a project culture in Kimberley-Clark Europe. industrial and Commercial Training.Volume 34. subroutine 3101-105. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Czuchry, A. J. and Yasin, M. M. 2003. Managing the project management process. Industrial Management and Data Systems. 103/1 39-46. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 9 Rees, W. D. and Porter, C. 2004. Matrix structures and the training implications. Industrial and Commercial Training. Volume 36. Number 5189193. Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN 0019-189-193 Gomes, C. F. , Yasin, M. M. and Lisboa, J. V. 2008. Project management in the context of organizat ional change. International Journal of Public Sector Management.Vol. 21 No. 6573-585. Tata, J. 2000. Autonomous work teams an examination of cultural and structural constraints. Work Study. Volume 49. Number 5187-193. MCB University Press. Rowlinson, S. 2001. Matrix organizational structure, culture and commitment a Hong Kong public sector case study of change. Construction Management and Economics. 19, 669-673. Spon Press. Brown, C. J. and Botha, M. C. 2005. Lessons learnt on implementing project management in a functionally-only structured South African municipality. South African Journal of Business Management. 36(4)1-7 Cheng, M. Su, C. and You, H. 2003. Optimal Project Organizational Structure for Construction Management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. January/February70-79. Brown, C. J. 2008. A comprehensive organisational model for the effective management of project management. South African Journal of Business Management. 39(3)1-8. Kennedy, D. A. and Mar x, T. 2009. Going Against Traditional Wisdom Running Projects in a Functional Structure. Proceedings of the 2009 Industrial Engineering Research Conference. 368-373. Thiry, M. 2006. The Matrix Evolves. PM Network. Apr. 20,422.Eve, A. 2007. Development of project management systems. Industrial and Commercial Training. Vol. 39. No. 285-90. 10 Questionnaire For each planning product written, please mark the most suitable answer referring to the projects you were recently involved in, according to the following scale 54321ABThe product is always obtained The product is quite a great deal obtained The product is frequently obtained The product is seldom obtained The product is hardly ever obtained The product is irrelevant to the projects I am involved in I do not know whether the product is obtainedPlease choose between 1-5 and A or B. Part A Project Planning Planning Product never Always Do not know contrary 1. Project Plan 2. Project Deliverables 3. WBS (Work Breakdown Structure) chart 4. Project Activities 5. PERT or Gantt Chart 6. Activity Duration Estimate 7. Activity Start and End Dates 8. Activity Required Resources 9. Resource Cost 10. Time-phased Budget 11. Quality Management Plan 12. habit and Responsibility Assignments 13. Project Staff Assignments 14. Communications Management Plan 15. Risk Management Plan 16. Procurement Management Plan 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 11 Part B Organisational Support Planning Product Never Always Do not know Irrelevant 17. Project-Based Organisation 18. point of Existence of Projects Procedures 19. Appropriate Project Manager Assignment 20. Extent of Refreshing Project Procedures 21. Extent of Involvement of the Project Manager during facility Stage 22.Extent of Communication between the Project Manager and the Organisation during the Planning Phase 23. Extent of Existence of Project Success Measurement 24. Extent of Supportive Project Organisational Structure 25. Extent of Existence of Interactive InterDepartmental Project Planning Groups 26. Extent of Organisational Projects Resource Planning 27. Extent of Organisational Projects Risk Management 28. Extent of Organisational Projects Quality Management 29. Extent of On Going Project Management Training Programs 30. Extent of Use of Standard Project Management software package (e. . Ms-Project) 31. Extent of Use of New Project Tools and Techniques 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 A A A A A A B B B B B B 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B 12 Part C Organisational Characteristics a. Organisation type ? (1) Engineering ? (4) Construction ? (7) Services ? (2) Software ? (5) Communications ? (8) politics ? (3) Production ? (6) Maintenanc e ? (9) early(a) ______ b. Project type ? (1) Engineering ? (4) Construction ? (7) Services ? 2) Software ? (5) Communications ? (8) Aeronautics ? (3) Electronics ? (6) Mechanics ? (9) Other _____ c. Evaluate the following indexes in the scale of 1 to 10 (1-low, 10-high) Index Low High Quality of planning of project you are involved in Project performance at the end of the projects Customer satisfaction at the end of the projects Risk level at the beginning of the project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 d. Your personal involvement in projects ? Project Manager ? Project Team Member ? Other _______ 13

Political Philosophy of the Philippines Essay

Graft and Corruption has always been a big problem for the Philippines. Many presidents (if not all) in the past, are solidly incriminate of creating and approving projects of which the budget is way more than the necessary expenses and way more than the outcome. Some are accused of accepting bribes from various groups of big syndicates that operate lottery illegally. Some of these presidents were greatly affected by all these accusations about their governance that they resort to forced resignation, but some were brave enough to stand by their government and stay seated in the throne despite all the allegations thrown against them.I know that this administration has been very consistent in apprisal the people about their prime focus for the next six years of the Aquino governance, and that is a government that is free of obscureion. From the time of the 2010 presidential elections until now, it has always been the greatest advocacy of chairwoman Aquino. For this years State of the Nation Address, the President took time to emphasize all the lapses and anomalies of the previous administration that were discovered in the early crash of the present administration. There were investigations and inspections done to know where all the money of the national budget had gone.And they discovered that there are a lot of questionable releases of budgets. President Aquino also shared their solution to all these arising questions like appointing a Truth commission, who will lead the investigations regarding all the questionable budget approval of the previous administration. Also, include in the State of the Nation Address are the different strategies that are considered by the government to answer the rising problem of unemployment in the rude, the plans for the Philhealth, the National primer coat Use Bill, and many more.For me, this is a good way to start the 6-year governance of this administration. Corruption is now in the minds of the people as something that is tearing this country apart, as something that is bringing the people down and as something that is inevitable to any administration. But with the strong determination and the strong will that this government is showing the people against corruption, they are gaining the trust of the people and with trust comes the support, which is for me an important part in any government.The fight of the government against corruption is something that the people appreciates because they have witnessed how life is with a corrupt leader, and with this fight the people sees a new light, they see a hope that there really could be a bright future for all of us. I also would like to emphasize that this philosophy of the government if pursued well, could actually bring a big big change in the state of the country today, more funds to go to proper projects for the people. But the question still remains.Can they really eliminate corruption within the government? Of course I am not against the capacity of the government to execute all their plans against corruption, but the government is a big institution and the president cannot do it all by himself. He would claim the support and participation of all the employees from the highest position in the palace to the smallest rank in all the branches of the government. This philosophy is great but we need to impose it properly so that all the plans will not go into waste and so that we will all benefit from it.

Cause and Effect of School Bullying Essay

In instantlys society bullying is playing a big roll in schools. A ratio of 13 student fix committed suicide or committed some(a) kind of crime due to the act of being bullied. The kids who ar being bullied are not tho victims only if the kids who are doing the bullying are victims also. If they are bullying they are having some type of problems at home. Not only that they have insecurities issues of some kind. This sometimes causes them to pick on people that have lower self-esteem issues than they have.Maybe this kids is overweight or maybe they wear glasses or nonetheless sometime they pick on people now a days from having slight mental illnesses. Bullying dont always shine the kid it also affects the family. But it doesnt always end in bad things in cases such as mines. On a personal blood being a victim of bullying it did give me self-esteem issues. But those self-esteem issues became much bigger then my problems and I overcame them. I was bullied all end-to-end element ary, middle, and high school but only in the 9th grade.They talked about my legs, they talked about my chest, they talked about my teeth, pretty much anything they can talk about on me it was done. Was even just picked on and told that I was an ugly little girl. It had me down but when maturity hit for me those same guys and girls started to like me more. The biggest tease of them all was having short hair. It only encouraged me more to bring out my true beauty. So like said before bullying has cause me to be more open about everything even my sexuality which back then I was teased about but now I embrace being a lesbian.I imply that only strong minded people can actually do some of the things I have done after being bullied. Now today I have grown beautifully and very successful if I must say. My past may hinder me a slight bit but there are still methods of me overcoming them. Based on my research if a student is lacking any types of family support, the effects can be more devas tating. In some cases some kids that are affects by any type of traumatic events may disassociate themselves from the traumatic situation and absorb themselves in bad behavior.sometimes they think that this negative attention is a good thing to help secure themselves. Something like when most kids mis-behave when their parents get divorces (Zigler, 2002). The only way they can compete is by doing wrong. Many kids who are affected by bullying can have their develop mental processes and some part of their brain affected by the events. In a recent survey of 1. 965 students between 7th and 12 grade 48% have reported being harassed in some kind of way by other students. (Anderson, 2011)

Cultural Baggage Essay

In the essay, Cultural Baggage by Barbara Ehrenreich believed that you do not have to be the religion or culture you were raised with. Ehrenreich believed that everyone was their have got person and could be who they necessity to be. She was apart of her own culture called nothing culture, that meant she didnt follow any of the cultural acts that her family would. She believe she could do whatever she wanted even if it wasnt like her culture.I trust she was right with everything she said in this essay. I believe everyone should have their own beliefs and do things the way they want to do them. Because in life once you 18, you are able to do whatever you want without your parents permission. Her mother, grandmother, and great grandmother referred to the family as nothing. Her mother eternally told her to try new things because they all ate different kinds of foods and did what other ethnicities did.She didnt believe in a certain type of culture. Close to the end of the essay, she asked her children if they tangle any ethnic or religious identity. The children said none which made her very proud to hear that her children picked up on their own tradition to think for themselves and hoped for them to carry it on. The author believes that people today have a problem.

Business Continuity Plan

info Sources in Digital rhetoricals March 17, 2013 Joana Achiampong CSEC 650 Introduction Four sources of selective discipline that stand out for rhetorical investigators in approximately criminal investigations argon files, operating systems, routers and intercommunicate traffic, and kind web legal action. Each info source presents a pastiche of opportunities and ch eachenges for investigators, meaning that the more reliable selective info compendium and abbreviation body process typically involves examination of a variety of sources.Digital forensics essential cover the quatern basic phases of military action, which include entropy ingathering, which describes the identification and acquisition of pertinent info selective information examination, which includes the processing of information through the use of automated and manual tools abbreviation, which describes the evaluation and categorization of examined information into coherent groups, such as their public utility in a court proceeding and reporting, in which the results of psycho epitome ar described with c beful attention paid to recommendations (Marcella & Menendez, 2009).The viability of each information source to an investigation must(prenominal) be evaluated establish on how they give the bounce contri ande to each phase. For sheath, the ability of routers and switches as a information source to help investigators might be in force(p) in one area, yet not in the new(prenominal) three. An examination of router bodily process might emergence a surfeit of observable info that fails to admit various(a) analytical tools that give the gatenot be relied upon in a forensic background. Another example is lucre traffic, which whitethorn yield a large beat of data that is unreliable or has a high degree of volatility (Garfinkel, 2010).Time is often essential for forensic investigators, and it is often most-valuable to know in evoke the kinetics of each data source. This helps investigators avoid wasted fourth dimension, or spending time analyzing data that may of minimal help in a forensic setting. For these reasons, it is heavy to critically assess the pros and cons of each data source for their ability to provide characters. A valid assessment of each data source should be make based on consistent agents such as costs, data sensitivity, and time investment.The overall costs of each data source depend on the equipment that ordain be getd to collect and crumble data without louse upion. Costs standardisedwise refer to the training and labor required during the course of the hookup and psychoanalysis, which may be higher for uncommon sources that require a unique process and chain of curb pattern. entropy sensitivity is critical is a forensic tool, but may be more questionable depending on the source. For example, vane activity can provide a wealth of information depending on the trick and setting upon which da ta is moved.However, a network environment with many devices and multiple human bodys may provide unreliable data that cannot be recognized in court proceedings. In addition, chain-of-command issues regarding the contribution of outside network analysts could compromise a source that would be otherwise valid. These issues stir to be go throughed in any data source assessment. Data Files The most common data sources in a digital forensic examination are flow rate and deleted files. Most forensic investigators in most data recovery environments begin with an examination of the various media store on the hard drive of a computer, network, or mobile device.The variety of types of stored data in current and deleted files, in addition to partitioned packet files and the slack spot of a devices memory, can be massive and diverse. A typical first misuse in data retrieval is to shut out down a system and execute a data grab or forensic duplicate upon which collection and analysis ca n be made. This ensures the honor of the original data, while allowing investigators the ability to manipulate data however they see fit. However, this process alone creates challenges for forensic investigators, including an unfitness to start out live system data.This might disallow investigators from catching a perpetrator in the act of altering or adding data to a device or system. 1 of the primary benefits of files as a data source is the ability to separate and analyze the types of files, which creates a particularized signature based on the core and drug user (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). Data can be pulled from deleted files, slack space on a systems hard drive, or free space, all of which provides information that can be useful to investigators.The directory location and allocation type for each file informs the data that has been collected, including a time stamp and whether tools have been utilize to entomb the data. Each of these characteristics provides investig ators easy-to- access code information about a system. In addition, there are a variety of hardware tools that can be use to access data. This engineering science is fairly common, meaning that associated costs function to be minimal when retrieving data from files (Purita, 2006). File examination can yield a variety of types of peculiar activity that tend to be helpful for investigators.One example is the presence of obscure evidence on file systems. This type of data can be hidden in deleted file spaces, slack spaces, and bad clusters. File space is marked as deleted when it is removed from an active directory. This data will continue to exist inside a cluster of a hard book can be identified and accessed by creating a file in Hex format and transferring the copied data. Data can also be hidden in many others ways, including by removing partitions that are created amidst data and by leveraging the slack space that exists between files.Attempts by users to hide data using thes e methods are affectionately identifiable by investigators, who can then restore the data using a variety of twopenny and efficient methods. For example, co-ordinated RAM slack to file slack identifies the size of a file and makes it easier to secern and retrieve (Sindhu & Meshram, 2012). This type of retrieval inherently emphasizes the importance of data truth. This type of integrity is important in any forensic environment, and compromised data is normally rendered instantly unusable. The many opportunities for data retrieved from file space to be compromised are a drawback to this data source.For example, data retrieval using bit stream imaging provides a real-time imitation onto a disk or similar medium. However, this can be compromised based on the fact that re-imagining of data is constantly changing during re-writing. Investigators will typically choose the type of data copy system based on what they are find outing for. However, changes to data can occur if the approp riate safeguards are not taken. Write-blockers are often used to prevent an imaging process from providing data that has been compromised by writing to that media. Sindhu and Meshram 2012) stated that computing a message digest will create a check mark of the copied data based on a comparison to the original. A message digest is an algorithm that takes input data and produces an output digest. This comparison helps investigators ensure the integrity of data in many cases. There are additional pitfalls when it comes to using files as data sources. Users have different resources for eliminating or hindering data collection. One example is overwriting content by replacing it with constant values. This type of wiping function can be performed by a variety of utilities.Users can also demagnetize a hard drive to physically destroy the content stored there. Using files as a data source in this case will require a complex operation requiring different tools. Users can also purposefully mi sname files for example, giving them . jpg extensions when they are not image content files in localise to turn off investigators. Investigators have to be familiar with strategies for circumventing these pitfalls, such as maintaining an up-to-date forensic toolkit and remaining committed to maintaining data integrity.In the end, files are very highly relied upon by investigators and are a strong source forensic data. However, investigators must be experienced and have the appropriate tools to ensure the viability of collected data. Operating Systems Generally speaking, the data that can be collected from Operating Systems (OS) is more diverse and fertile than file systems data, and has greater potential to uncover application-specific events or vital volatile data specific to a network operation (Sindhu, Tribathi & Meshram, 2012).However, OS data mining can be more difficult and challenging, and often requires investigators to make quick decisions based on the type of data the y are quest. OS data mining is more case specific, in part because the retrieval of data is frequently machine-accessible to network configurations. Collecting volatile data can only occur from a live system that has not been shut down or rebooted (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). spare activity that occurs over an individual network session is very likely to compromise the OS data. For this reason, investigators have to be prepared and aware of what they are face for.Time is of the nerve in this case, and it is important to decide quickly whether or not the OS data should be preserved or if the system should be shut down. keeping a system running during data extraction can also compromise data files. This also leaves data vulnerable to malware that has been installed by a user with bad intentions, determined to undermine the operations of investigators. The types of data that can be retrieved from the OS include network connections, network configurations, running processes, open files, and login sessions.In addition, the full limit of the memory can be retrieved from the OS history, usually with little or no alteration of data when the footprint of retrieval activity is minimized. The narrate in which this data is collected typically runs in a standard succession, with network connections, login sessions, and memory collection sitting at the top of the list or priorities. These sources are more important because they tend to change over time. For example, network connections tend to time out and login sessions can change as users log in or out. net configurations and the files that are open in a system are less time-sensitive and fall further down the list of priorities for investigators. The forensic toolkit must be diverse to ensure that data retrieval is achieved with minimal alteration (Bui, Enyeart & Luong, 2003). In addition, the message digest of each tool should be documented, along with licensing and version information, and command logs. This wakeful documentation protects users from sudden loss of data or other disturbances during data retrieval.In addition, a number of accessibility issues can be implemented by users, including the military position of screen saver passwords, key remapping and log disabling features, all of which can disrupt the work by investigators, either providing unworkable obstacles or long hurdling that make complete transfer impossible. Ultimately, the use of OS as a data source is a case-by-case tool dependent on the approachability of other sources and the specific needs and tools of investigators. Routers and Network TrafficAmong network configuration data sources, router activity and network sourcing has the potential to provide the most specific measuring stick of evoke activity for forensic use. Forensic equipment should have time stamping capabilities activated to provide an accurate time signature of network interaction between an end-user and a router or switch (Schwartz, 2011). Importantly, firewalls and routers that are tied to a network often provide network address translation which can offer additional information by clarifying configuration or additional IP addresses on a network (Huston, 2004).There are a number of tools useable to people seeking an analysis of network activity, including packet sniffers and attack detection systems (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). These tools help investigators examine all packets for suspicious IP addresses and special events that have occurred across a network. This data is usually recorded and analyzed so that investigators can compare unusual events to evaluate network weaknesses and special interests of would-be attackers.This is of great interests to security agents determined to identify and compass signify potential network intrusions. A number of technical, procedural, legal and ethical issues exist when examining and analyzing network data. It is imperative that investigators be sure to avoid disconnecte d from a network or rebooting a system during data retrieval. They should also rely on live data and persistent information. Finally, it is important to avoid running configuration commands that could corrupt a network or its activity (Gast, 2010).Issues such as storage of large amounts of data over a highly trafficked network and proper locating of a decryption device along a network can impact how data is available and whether or not it maintains integrity. It is also important to consider the ethical and legal issues of data retrieval along a network when it involves sensitive data, such as financial records and personal information like passwords. In many cases, ethical issues can be circumvented with careful documentation and the publication of organizational policies and procedures that are strictly followed.However, these are all issues that must be considered in the analysis of network trafficking as a data source. Social Network Activity The sheer volume of genial networ k activity such as that on Facebook, Twitter, and Instragram makes examining it as a data source great potential as a forensic tool. To this point, the little available research on social network data has failed to come up with a comprehensive framework or set of standards for investigators. Social network tools across mobile platforms invariably have geolocation services.However, the use of these as a data source has been questioned from ethical and legal perspectives (Humaid, Yousif, & Said, 2011). The communication layer of social media applications on mobile devices can yield rich data, such as a browser cache and packet activity. Packet sniffing can expose unencrypted wifi use and third party intrusion across a social network. However, these tools are highly limited when they are restricted to social network activity. The best tools may be the ability to create a social footprint, which includes all friend activity, posted pictures and videos, communication habits, and perio ds of activity.For most people, this information is only available on social network websites and is not stored on a users hard drive. A certain climate of permissibility tends to apply to social network use, in which users are prone to making data available online that they would not otherwise expose. All of this strengthens the use of social networks as a data source. The greatest pitfall to social network activity is the malleability of the material. Users frequently change their habits, including the times of the day and the users with whom they connect.Cumulative social network data can be used to create a graph of all activity across a variety of factors, including time, space, usage, and devices (Mulazzani, Huber, & Weippl). But this is a rapidly changing field. There is little doubt that the cloud computing data storage and proceed ontogeny of social networks will change this field quickly, which could quickly undermine past data that has been retrieved. Potential Usefuln ess in Specific Events The usefulness of a data source is strictly tied to the event it is intended to investigate.It is imperative that investigators are net on their goals prior to selecting a source to retrieve and analyze data from. For example, a network intrusion would be best tackled with an examination of network traffic, followed by social network analysis, Operating Systems, and data file systems. Network analysis is less prone to attacking strategies that can compromise file and OS data. It can observe network traffic to find anomalous entities and their ledger entry point within a network. It can also identify source and destination data by data recovery and access to routers r other network access points (Aquilina, Casey & Malin, 2008). This is critical information for network intrusion investigations. Operating Systems enable access to volatile data, but this is limited by single-time use and data integrity issues. Most OS examinations look at network connections fir st, which is often another way of accessing the said(prenominal) data. File storage and social network analysis tend to offer peripheral views of the same material. Operating systems are the most helpful data source in malware installation investigation, followed by network traffic, data files, and social network activity.Examination of volatile data offers a range of data, including network connections and login sessions, which are primary tools for finding the source of malware installation (Aquilina, Casey & Malin, 2008). Maintaining the integrity of data through quick retrieval and minimal footprints helps ensure its usefulness. At the same time, monitoring network traffic in a pro-active manner is often the surest way of pinpointing time signatures and matching them with network activity (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). The best data sources for identifying insider file deletion are data files, network traffic, social network activity and OS.Each source offers benefits for this ty pe of investigation, but data file collection and analysis yields bad clusters and slack space, both of which pinpoint the likelihood of deleted files. Recovery can begin from this point. Network activity and OS data retrieval can lead investigators to unusual login attempts and anomalous activity in order to pinpoint the location of deleted files along a network. At the same time, social network examination can help investigators understand reasons for deleted files and even learn more about the habits and lifestyle of a likely perpetrator.In the end, a collection of each of these sources provides a rich, revealing glimpse at deleted file activity. Conclusion Network traffic, data files, operating systems, and social network activity are four common data sources in digital forensic. Each provides a unique opportunity and set of risks for investigators, and the source should be chosen based on clear objectives and awareness of all circumstances. In many cases, the best choice is a c ombination of sources to provide multiple opportunities to arrive at the relevant evidence.Another factor is whether the data search is reactive or pro-active, with network traffic often providing the best source of evidence in a pro-active, forward-thinking environment. The variable of time must also be considered, specifically with respect to how investigators approach volatile data. Each of these issues must be considered when evaluating data sources. References Aquilina, J. , Casey, E. & Malin, C. (2008). Malware forensics Investigating and Analyzing Malicious Code. Burlington, MA Syngress Publishing. Bui, S. , Enyeart, M. & Luong, J. (2003, May). Issues in reckoner Forensics. Retrieved ttp//www. cse. scu. edu/jholliday/COEN150sp03/projects/Forensic%20Investiga tion. pdf Garfinkel, S. (2010). Digital forensics research The next 10 years. Digital Investigation, 7. 64-73. Gast, T. (2010). Forensic data handling. The seam Forum. Retrieved from http//www. bizforum. org/whitepapers /cybertrust-1. htm Humaid, H. , Yousif, A. & Said, H. (2011, December). Smart phones forensics and social networks. IEEE Multidisciplinary Engineering Education Magazine, 6(4). 7-14. Huston, G. (2004, September). Anatomy A look inside network address translators. The Internet Protocol diary, 7(3).Retrieved from http//www. cisco. com/web/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_7- 3/anatomy. html Marcella, A. & Menendez, D. (2008). Cyber Forensics A Field Manual for Collecting, Examining, and Preserving Data. Boca Raton, FL Auerbach Publications. Mulazzani, M. , Huber, M. & Weippl, E. (n. d. ). Social network forensics Tapping the data pool of social networks. SBA-Research. Retrieved from http//www. sba- research. org/wp-content/uploads/publications/socialForensics_preprint. pdf Purita, R. (2006). Computer Forensics A valuable audit tool. Internal Auditor. Retrieved from http//www. theiia. rg/intAuditor/itaudit/archives/2006/september/computer- forensics-a-valuable-audit-tool-1/ Schwar tz, M. (2011, December). How digital forensics detects insider theft. InformationWeek Security. Retrieved from http//www. informationweek. com/security/management/how-digital-forensics- detects-insider-t/232300409 Sindhu, K. & Meshram, B. (2012). A digital forensic tool for cyber crime data mining. Engineering Science and Technology An International Journal, 2(1). 117-123. Sindhu, K. , Tripathi, S. & Meshram, B. (2012). Digital forensic investigation on file system and database tampering. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2(2). 214-221.Business Continuity PlanData Sources in Digital Forensics March 17, 2013 Joana Achiampong CSEC 650 Introduction Four sources of data that stand out for forensic investigators in most criminal investigations are files, operating systems, routers and network traffic, and social network activity. Each data source presents a variety of opportunities and challenges for investigators, meaning that the more reliable data collection and analysis activity typically involves examination of a variety of sources.Digital forensics must cover the four basic phases of activity, which include data collection, which describes the identification and acquisition of relevant data data examination, which includes the processing of data through the use of automated and manual tools analysis, which describes the evaluation and categorization of examined data into coherent groups, such as their usefulness in a court proceeding and reporting, in which the results of analysis are described with careful attention paid to recommendations (Marcella & Menendez, 2009).The viability of each data source to an investigation must be evaluated based on how they can contribute to each phase. For example, the ability of routers and switches as a data source to help investigators might be effective in one area, but not in the other three. An examination of router activity might yield a surfeit of observable data that fails to provide diverse analytical tools that cannot b e relied upon in a forensic setting. Another example is network traffic, which may yield a large amount of data that is unreliable or has a high degree of volatility (Garfinkel, 2010).Time is often essential for forensic investigators, and it is often important to know in advance the dynamics of each data source. This helps investigators avoid wasted time, or spending time analyzing data that may of minimal help in a forensic setting. For these reasons, it is important to critically assess the pros and cons of each data source for their ability to provide contributions. A valid assessment of each data source should be made based on consistent factors such as costs, data sensitivity, and time investment.The overall costs of each data source depend on the equipment that will be required to collect and analyze data without corruption. Costs also refer to the training and labor required during the course of the collection and analysis, which may be higher for uncommon sources that requi re a unique process and chain of command pattern. Data sensitivity is critical is a forensic tool, but may be more questionable depending on the source. For example, network activity can provide a wealth of information depending on the device and setting upon which data is moved.However, a network environment with many devices and multiple configurations may provide unreliable data that cannot be recognized in court proceedings. In addition, chain-of-command issues regarding the contribution of outside network analysts could compromise a source that would be otherwise valid. These issues have to be considered in any data source assessment. Data Files The most common data sources in a digital forensic examination are current and deleted files. Most forensic investigators in most data retrieval environments begin with an examination of the various media store on the hard drive of a computer, network, or mobile device.The variety of types of stored data in current and deleted files, in addition to partitioned packet files and the slack space of a devices memory, can be massive and diverse. A typical first step in data retrieval is to shut down a system and create a data grab or forensic duplicate upon which collection and analysis can be made. This ensures the integrity of the original data, while allowing investigators the ability to manipulate data however they see fit. However, this process alone creates challenges for forensic investigators, including an inability to capture live system data.This might prevent investigators from catching a perpetrator in the act of altering or adding data to a device or system. One of the primary benefits of files as a data source is the ability to separate and analyze the types of files, which creates a specific signature based on the content and user (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). Data can be pulled from deleted files, slack space on a systems hard drive, or free space, all of which provides information that can be useful to investigators.The directory location and allocation type for each file informs the data that has been collected, including a time stamp and whether tools have been used to hide the data. Each of these characteristics provides investigators easy-to-access information about a system. In addition, there are a variety of hardware tools that can be used to access data. This technology is fairly common, meaning that associated costs tend to be minimal when retrieving data from files (Purita, 2006). File examination can yield a variety of types of suspicious activity that tend to be helpful for investigators.One example is the presence of hidden evidence on file systems. This type of data can be hidden in deleted file spaces, slack spaces, and bad clusters. File space is marked as deleted when it is removed from an active directory. This data will continue to exist within a cluster of a hard disk can be identified and accessed by creating a file in Hex format and transferring the copied da ta. Data can also be hidden in many others ways, including by removing partitions that are created between data and by leveraging the slack space that exists between files.Attempts by users to hide data using these methods are quickly identifiable by investigators, who can then restore the data using a variety of inexpensive and efficient methods. For example, matching RAM slack to file slack identifies the size of a file and makes it easier to identify and retrieve (Sindhu & Meshram, 2012). This type of retrieval inherently emphasizes the importance of data integrity. This type of integrity is important in any forensic environment, and compromised data is usually rendered instantly unusable. The many opportunities for data retrieved from file space to be compromised are a drawback to this data source.For example, data retrieval using bit stream imaging provides a real-time copy onto a disk or similar medium. However, this can be compromised based on the fact that re-imagining of da ta is constantly changing during re-writing. Investigators will typically choose the type of data copy system based on what they are looking for. However, changes to data can occur if the appropriate safeguards are not taken. Write-blockers are often used to prevent an imaging process from providing data that has been compromised by writing to that media. Sindhu and Meshram 2012) stated that computing a message digest will create a verification of the copied data based on a comparison to the original. A message digest is an algorithm that takes input data and produces an output digest. This comparison helps investigators ensure the integrity of data in many cases. There are additional pitfalls when it comes to using files as data sources. Users have different resources for eliminating or hindering data collection. One example is overwriting content by replacing it with constant values. This type of wiping function can be performed by a variety of utilities.Users can also demagnetize a hard drive to physically destroy the content stored there. Using files as a data source in this case will require a complex operation requiring different tools. Users can also purposefully misname files for example, giving them . jpg extensions when they are not image content files in order to confuse investigators. Investigators have to be familiar with strategies for circumventing these pitfalls, such as maintaining an up-to-date forensic toolkit and remaining committed to maintaining data integrity.In the end, files are very highly relied upon by investigators and are a strong source forensic data. However, investigators must be experienced and have the appropriate tools to ensure the viability of collected data. Operating Systems Generally speaking, the data that can be collected from Operating Systems (OS) is more diverse and rich than file systems data, and has greater potential to uncover application-specific events or vital volatile data specific to a network operation (Sindhu, Tribathi & Meshram, 2012).However, OS data mining can be more difficult and challenging, and often requires investigators to make quick decisions based on the type of data they are seeking. OS data mining is more case specific, in part because the retrieval of data is frequently connected to network configurations. Collecting volatile data can only occur from a live system that has not been shut down or rebooted (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). Additional activity that occurs over an individual network session is very likely to compromise the OS data. For this reason, investigators have to be prepared and aware of what they are looking for.Time is of the essence in this case, and it is important to decide quickly whether or not the OS data should be preserved or if the system should be shut down. Keeping a system running during data extraction can also compromise data files. This also leaves data vulnerable to malware that has been installed by a user with bad intentions, deter mined to undermine the operations of investigators. The types of data that can be retrieved from the OS include network connections, network configurations, running processes, open files, and login sessions.In addition, the entire contents of the memory can be retrieved from the OS history, usually with little or no alteration of data when the footprint of retrieval activity is minimized. The order in which this data is collected typically runs in a standard succession, with network connections, login sessions, and memory collection sitting at the top of the list or priorities. These sources are more important because they tend to change over time. For example, network connections tend to time out and login sessions can change as users log in or out.Network configurations and the files that are open in a system are less time-sensitive and fall further down the list of priorities for investigators. The forensic toolkit must be diverse to ensure that data retrieval is achieved with mi nimal alteration (Bui, Enyeart & Luong, 2003). In addition, the message digest of each tool should be documented, along with licensing and version information, and command logs. This careful documentation protects users from sudden loss of data or other disturbances during data retrieval.In addition, a number of accessibility issues can be implemented by users, including the placement of screen saver passwords, key remapping and log disabling features, all of which can disrupt the work by investigators, either providing unworkable obstacles or time-consuming hurdles that make complete transfer impossible. Ultimately, the use of OS as a data source is a case-by-case tool dependent on the availability of other sources and the specific needs and tools of investigators. Routers and Network TrafficAmong network configuration data sources, router activity and network sourcing has the potential to provide the most specific amount of incriminating activity for forensic use. Forensic equipme nt should have time stamping capabilities activated to provide an accurate time signature of network interaction between an end-user and a router or switch (Schwartz, 2011). Importantly, firewalls and routers that are tied to a network often provide network address translation which can offer additional information by clarifying configuration or additional IP addresses on a network (Huston, 2004).There are a number of tools available to people seeking an analysis of network activity, including packet sniffers and intrusion detection systems (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). These tools help investigators examine all packets for suspicious IP addresses and special events that have occurred across a network. This data is usually recorded and analyzed so that investigators can compare unusual events to evaluate network weaknesses and special interests of would-be attackers.This is of great interests to security agents determined to identify and stop potential network intrusions. A number of technical, procedural, legal and ethical issues exist when examining and analyzing network data. It is imperative that investigators be sure to avoid disconnected from a network or rebooting a system during data retrieval. They should also rely on live data and persistent information. Finally, it is important to avoid running configuration commands that could corrupt a network or its activity (Gast, 2010).Issues such as storage of large amounts of data over a highly trafficked network and proper placement of a decryption device along a network can impact how data is available and whether or not it maintains integrity. It is also important to consider the ethical and legal issues of data retrieval along a network when it involves sensitive data, such as financial records and personal information like passwords. In many cases, ethical issues can be circumvented with careful documentation and the publication of organizational policies and procedures that are strictly followed.However, these are all issues that must be considered in the analysis of network trafficking as a data source. Social Network Activity The sheer volume of social network activity such as that on Facebook, Twitter, and Instragram makes examining it as a data source great potential as a forensic tool. To this point, the little available research on social network data has failed to come up with a comprehensive framework or set of standards for investigators. Social network tools across mobile platforms invariably have geolocation services.However, the use of these as a data source has been questioned from ethical and legal perspectives (Humaid, Yousif, & Said, 2011). The communication layer of social media applications on mobile devices can yield rich data, such as a browser cache and packet activity. Packet sniffing can expose unencrypted wifi use and third party intrusion across a social network. However, these tools are highly limited when they are restricted to social network activity. The best tools may be the ability to create a social footprint, which includes all friend activity, posted pictures and videos, communication habits, and periods of activity.For most people, this information is only available on social network websites and is not stored on a users hard drive. A certain climate of permissibility tends to apply to social network use, in which users are prone to making data available online that they would not otherwise expose. All of this strengthens the use of social networks as a data source. The greatest pitfall to social network activity is the malleability of the material. Users frequently change their habits, including the times of the day and the users with whom they connect.Cumulative social network data can be used to create a graph of all activity across a variety of factors, including time, space, usage, and devices (Mulazzani, Huber, & Weippl). But this is a rapidly changing field. There is little doubt that the cloud computing data storag e and continued growth of social networks will change this field quickly, which could quickly undermine past data that has been retrieved. Potential Usefulness in Specific Events The usefulness of a data source is strictly tied to the event it is intended to investigate.It is imperative that investigators are clear on their goals prior to selecting a source to retrieve and analyze data from. For example, a network intrusion would be best tackled with an examination of network traffic, followed by social network analysis, Operating Systems, and data file systems. Network analysis is less prone to attacking strategies that can compromise file and OS data. It can observe network traffic to find anomalous entities and their entry point within a network. It can also identify source and destination data by data recovery and access to routers r other network access points (Aquilina, Casey & Malin, 2008). This is critical information for network intrusion investigations. Operating Systems e nable access to volatile data, but this is limited by single-time use and data integrity issues. Most OS examinations look at network connections first, which is often another way of accessing the same data. File storage and social network analysis tend to offer peripheral views of the same material. Operating systems are the most helpful data source in malware installation investigation, followed by network traffic, data files, and social network activity.Examination of volatile data offers a range of data, including network connections and login sessions, which are primary tools for finding the source of malware installation (Aquilina, Casey & Malin, 2008). Maintaining the integrity of data through quick retrieval and minimal footprints helps ensure its usefulness. At the same time, monitoring network traffic in a pro-active manner is often the surest way of pinpointing time signatures and matching them with network activity (Marcella & Menendez, 2008). The best data sources for i dentifying insider file deletion are data files, network traffic, social network activity and OS.Each source offers benefits for this type of investigation, but data file collection and analysis yields bad clusters and slack space, both of which pinpoint the likelihood of deleted files. Recovery can begin from this point. Network activity and OS data retrieval can lead investigators to unusual login attempts and anomalous activity in order to pinpoint the location of deleted files along a network. At the same time, social network examination can help investigators understand reasons for deleted files and even learn more about the habits and lifestyle of a likely perpetrator.In the end, a collection of each of these sources provides a rich, revealing glimpse at deleted file activity. Conclusion Network traffic, data files, operating systems, and social network activity are four common data sources in digital forensic. Each provides a unique opportunity and set of risks for investigat ors, and the source should be chosen based on clear objectives and awareness of all circumstances. In many cases, the best choice is a combination of sources to provide multiple opportunities to arrive at the relevant evidence.Another factor is whether the data search is reactive or pro-active, with network traffic often providing the best source of evidence in a pro-active, forward-thinking environment. The variable of time must also be considered, specifically with respect to how investigators approach volatile data. Each of these issues must be considered when evaluating data sources. References Aquilina, J. , Casey, E. & Malin, C. (2008). Malware forensics Investigating and Analyzing Malicious Code. Burlington, MA Syngress Publishing. Bui, S. , Enyeart, M. & Luong, J. (2003, May). Issues in Computer Forensics. Retrieved ttp//www. cse. scu. edu/jholliday/COEN150sp03/projects/Forensic%20Investiga tion. pdf Garfinkel, S. (2010). Digital forensics research The next 10 years. Digital Investigation, 7. 64-73. Gast, T. (2010). Forensic data handling. The Business Forum. Retrieved from http//www. bizforum. org/whitepapers/cybertrust-1. htm Humaid, H. , Yousif, A. & Said, H. (2011, December). Smart phones forensics and social networks. IEEE Multidisciplinary Engineering Education Magazine, 6(4). 7-14. Huston, G. (2004, September). Anatomy A look inside network address translators. The Internet Protocol Journal, 7(3).Retrieved from http//www. cisco. com/web/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_7- 3/anatomy. html Marcella, A. & Menendez, D. (2008). Cyber Forensics A Field Manual for Collecting, Examining, and Preserving Data. Boca Raton, FL Auerbach Publications. Mulazzani, M. , Huber, M. & Weippl, E. (n. d. ). Social network forensics Tapping the data pool of social networks. SBA-Research. Retrieved from http//www. sba- research. org/wp-content/uploads/publications/socialForensics_preprint. pdf Purita, R. (2006). Computer Forensics A valuable audit tool. Internal A uditor. Retrieved from http//www. theiia. rg/intAuditor/itaudit/archives/2006/september/computer- forensics-a-valuable-audit-tool-1/ Schwartz, M. (2011, December). How digital forensics detects insider theft. InformationWeek Security. Retrieved from http//www. informationweek. com/security/management/how-digital-forensics- detects-insider-t/232300409 Sindhu, K. & Meshram, B. (2012). A digital forensic tool for cyber crime data mining. Engineering Science and Technology An International Journal, 2(1). 117-123. Sindhu, K. , Tripathi, S. & Meshram, B. (2012). Digital forensic investigation on file system and database tampering. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2(2). 214-221.